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The Ethanol Nexus: A Deep Research Paper on Alcohol’s History, Technology, and Civilization

Part I: The Primordial Ferment: Origins and Global Anthropology

Chapter 1: The Evolutionary Imperative: Alcohol in Deep History

This chapter establishes alcohol consumption not as a cultural invention, but as a deep biological interaction rooted in pre-human evolution, setting the stage for the earliest intentional production.

1.1. The Drunken Monkey Hypothesis: Primate Metabolism and Evolutionary Adaptation

The ability to metabolize alcohol likely predates humanity, originating with primates consuming fermenting fruit.[1] Biologist Robert Dudley formulated the “drunken monkey” hypothesis in 2000, positing that low levels of naturally produced ethanol—a byproduct of wild yeast decomposing ripe fruit or nectar—attracted pre-human ancestors to energy-rich food sources.[1]

Through natural fermentation, yeast feeds on plant sugars and produces CO2 and ethanol as waste products. In this way, developing a taste for alcohol (the low levels found in nature) could have conferred a survival advantage, granting access to an untapped resource in a forest full of animals competing for energy-rich foods.[1] This reframes the alcohol preference as a positive selection pressure, linking the smell of ethanol to caloric richness. Alcohol abuse and addiction today are described as an “evolutionary hangover”—a deep-rooted taste for fermented sugars that was adaptive long ago but is detrimental when exposed to unnaturally high ethanol concentrations found in modern beverages.[1]

1.2. The Paleolithic Potential: Theoretical Consumption (c. 100,000 BCE)

While there is no direct evidence that ancient ancestors drank fermented liquids, the possibility must be considered. Theoretically, Paleolithic humans or their ancestors recognized that leaving fruit in a container for an extended period leads naturally to alcohol-infused juices.[2] If early hominids consumed slightly fermented fruit, they were likely benefiting from both the antimicrobial properties of ethanol (potentially killing pathogens on the fruit surface) and the caloric density. This early biochemical interaction establishes ethanol as a naturally occurring substance encountered regularly, suggesting that the initial physiological tolerance was a baseline condition for Homo sapiens rather than a late development.

1.3. Archaeological Confirmation: The Dawn of Intentional Production

1.3.1. Natufian Beer at Raqefet Cave (c. 11,000 BCE): The Earliest Verifiable Evidence

Chemical analyses recently confirmed the presence of 13,000-year-old beer production traces recovered from three stone mortars used by the semi-sedentary Natufians in Raqefet Cave, Israel.[3, 4] This discovery marks the earliest-known evidence of intentional brewing among ancient peoples.[4]

The Raqefet finding is significant because it dates to the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic, suggesting alcohol was produced by foraging, semi-sedentary people before large-scale agricultural surplus was established.[5] This challenges the traditional view that beer was merely a byproduct of extensive grain farming. Instead, the need for large containers and controlled processing of ingredients for fermentation may have been a driver for, or at least simultaneous with, the initial steps toward permanent settlements.[5]

1.3.2. Neolithic Proto-Beverages: The Mixed Drink of Jiahu, China (c. 7000–6600 BCE)

Chemical analyses of organic residues preserved in pottery jars from the Neolithic village of Jiahu in Henan province, China, have revealed that the earliest alcoholic beverage was a mixed fermented drink of rice, honey, and hawthorn fruit and/or grape.[6, 7, 5] Dating ca. 7000–6600 BCE, this beverage currently predates the earliest evidence of grape wine from the Middle East by more than 500 years.[6] China thus demonstrates an early, distinct technical path involving multiple fermentable sources (rice, honey, fruit), establishing East Asia as a primary cradle of fermentation technology.[5]

1.3.3. Early Grape Wine and Barley Beer in the Fertile Crescent

Evidence of alcoholic beverages is widespread in the Fertile Crescent by the third millennium BCE across Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Anatolia.[8, 9] Early evidence includes Hajji Firuz Tepe in Iran (5400–5000 BC) [5] and ancient Egypt (3150 BC).[5] Predynastic Egypt had a large number of barley- and wheat-based brewery installations by the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE.[2]

Chapter 2: The Cradle of Civilization: Alcohol as Commerce and Staple (4000 BCE – 1000 CE)

2.1. Beer as Currency and Social Stratifier in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt

Beer was the major beverage among the Babylonians.[5, 10] By the third millennium BCE, both beer and wine drinking were widespread in Mesopotamia and Egypt.[8, 9]

Historical evidence demonstrates that wine was generally a costly good consumed only by elite strata, whereas the lower classes drank beer.[8, 9] This establishes alcohol as a key marker of social stratification and trade from an early date.[8] Around 1750 BC, the famous Code of Hammurabi devoted attention to alcohol, focusing on fair commerce rather than drunkenness, indicating its significant economic importance.[5, 10]

2.2. East Asian Divergence: Rice as the Primary Substrate

Unlike the traditions in Europe and the Middle East, China largely abandoned the production of grape wine before the advent of writing and, under the Han Dynasty, abandoned beer in favor of Huangjiu and other forms of rice wine.[5, 10]

This early switch to rice-based beverages implies the establishment and mastery of Koji (mold-based) saccharification technology early in Chinese history. This technical path divergence is centuries old and is the foundational difference that defines later Japanese beverages, contrasting with the West’s focus on grain malting or fruit pressing. Alcoholic beverages were widely used in all segments of Chinese society, serving as a source of inspiration, important for hospitality, and considered an antidote for fatigue.[5, 10]

Part II: The Japanese Tapestry: History, Evolution, and Unique Methodology

Chapter 3: The Genesis of Japanese Alcohol: Sake, Shochu, and Awamori

This chapter details the specific chronological and methodological path Japan took, emphasizing the central role of the Koji mold.

3.1. Early Sake (Kuchikami no Sake) and the Development of Koji Culture

Japanese sake (Nihonshu) originated from rudimentary fermentation methods (legendarily including Kuchikami no Sake, or “mouth-chewed sake”) that relied on enzymes in saliva. This evolved into the sophisticated system utilizing the mold Aspergillus oryzae (Koji mold). Brewing transitioned from domestic, small-scale production to professional manufacturing, often centered in temples and shrines which possessed the organizational structure required for large-scale production.

3.2. Shochu and Awamori: Distillation History and the Ryukyu Kingdom Context

Awamori is a distilled rice spirit that originated in Okinawa (the Ryukyu Kingdom).[11] Advanced distillation technology, likely acquired via Southeast Asia, was quickly institutionalized. From the 18th century, the Ryukyu royal government controlled the distillation, sale, and consumption of awamori, limiting production strictly to three areas in Shuri by royal decree.[11] This strict state control over Awamori demonstrates how advanced alcohol technology (distillation) quickly became a valuable state resource—both economically (taxation) and politically (social control)—positioning the spirit as a strategic commodity, much like monarchs or monasteries controlled high-value beverages in Europe.

Chapter 4: The Pillars of Continuity: Analysis of Japan’s Oldest Brands

This chapter focuses on the historical depth and unique market positioning of Japan’s most enduring alcoholic beverage brands, contrasting them with general industry trends. Japan’s oldest continuously operating breweries demonstrate resilience and commitment unparalleled globally.

Table 4.1: Comparison of Japan’s Oldest Remaining Alcoholic Beverage Producers (Focus on Sake)

4.1. Case Study: Sudo Honke (1141 CE) – The Unbroken Tradition

4.1.1. Founding and Lineage

Founded in 1141, Sudo Honke is the oldest sake brewery in Japan, run by the 55th generation of the Sudo family.[13, 12] Its longevity places it among the oldest continuous companies in the world. The brewery is headquartered in Kasama, Ibaraki Prefecture.[12]

4.1.2. Distinguishing Methods and Philosophy

The company’s survival is predicated on an intense commitment to ancestral teachings and natural integrity.[12] All sake produced is unfiltered Junmai Daiginjo, described as having “the natural high quality as it was brewed”.[12] Sudo Honke adheres to the principle of winter-only brewing, following the teachings of its ancestors, and ensuring that these winter brews are not carbonated.[12] Furthermore, Sudo Honke states it is “one of a few rare breweries that store sake at the condition of unpasteurized”.[12]

The core ancestral philosophy is that “Only with the dignity to the nature and ancestors, real sake can be brewed,” emphasizing the importance of protecting the local environment (air, water, and climate).[12] A central ancestral teaching that guides their environmental stewardship is the maxim: “Never cut the trees“.[12]

4.1.3. Resilience and Brand Validation

The brewery faced an existential threat following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and the subsequent nuclear disaster at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, located approximately 130 km away.[12] Though the brewery itself was undamaged, subsequent tests confirmed that no radiation had entered its centuries-old source wells.[12]

This survival of the pure water source without contamination transformed Sudo Honke’s narrative from simply being old to being existentially validated in the modern environmental crisis. The confirmed purity validated their 880-year commitment to protecting the local environment (“Never cut the trees”).[12] In an era where environmental degradation is common, this demonstrated purity is not merely a component of the flavor profile [12] but a profound, marketable demonstration of resilience and philosophical integrity, setting the brand apart globally.

Part III: Intercultural Synthesis: Technique, Terroir, and Global Brands

Chapter 5: Technical Divergence: Koji vs. Malt and Fermentation Dynamics

This chapter provides the core technical comparison demonstrating how Japanese and Western brewing traditions are fundamentally different at the enzymatic level.

5.1. The Role of Enzymes: Saccharification via Mold (Koji) vs. Germination (Malt)

The fundamental difference between Japanese and Western brewing lies in the method of saccharification—the process of converting starch into fermentable sugars.[14]

• Malting (Western Tradition): This process involves tricking whole grains (typically barley) into germinating to activate the grain’s own internal enzymes (diastatic power), which convert starches into fermentable sugars. The process is then halted by drying and heating.[14]
• Koji (Japanese/East Asian Tradition): This utilizes the enzymatic activity of the mold (Aspergillus oryzae) grown on steamed grains (most commonly rice, but also barley, sweet potato, etc.) to perform saccharification.[15, 14] Koji inoculation requires the grain to be polished and steamed, unlike malting, which relies on whole grains.[14] Polished rice is notably difficult to malt successfully, resulting in low extract yield, explaining why Koji is the preferred method.[16]

5.2. Japanese Innovation: The System of Multiple Parallel Fermentation (MPF)

In the Western system, mashing/malting occurs first, followed by fermentation. In contrast, Japanese Koji-based alcohol production, such as sake, utilizes Multiple Parallel Fermentation (MPF).[16] In this system, saccharification (starch-to-sugar conversion by Koji) and fermentation (sugar-to-alcohol conversion by yeast) occur simultaneously in the same vessel.[16]

This MPF system is a key technical differentiator globally. It allows for much higher alcohol concentrations (up to 20% ABV in sake mash) before distillation, compared to typical Western beer mashes (around 5–10%).

5.3. Koji Products and Flavor Profiles

Koji functions not merely as a saccharification agent but also as a flavor modifier.[15] Depending on the mold strain utilized (e.g., A. oryzae versus A. luchiensis), Koji processing can yield diverse flavor profiles, including floral jasmine tea notes, or highly acidic sourdough characteristics due to high protein modification.[15] The mold contributes unique proteins and amino acids, creating the umami and complex savory notes characteristic of sake and shochu. By comparison, malting releases sugars but primarily focuses on the inherent flavor of the grain itself (maltiness). This technical distinction explains why Japanese spirits often possess a smoother, richer profile (higher protein modification) compared to the starker, drier character of many Western distilled beverages based on malted barley.

Chapter 6: Terroir and Technical Inputs: The Unseen Influencers

6.1. The Criticality of Water Quality: Mineral Content and Fermentation Speed

Minerals in water play a key role in brewing by influencing fermentation and, ultimately, the flavor profile.[17] Different mineral levels affect how yeast performs and how flavors develop.[17]

• Water Hardness Comparison: Hard water speeds up fermentation, leading to a more intense, robust, and drier sake (e.g., the Nada region, around 6°dH).[17]
• Soft Water Comparison: Soft water slows fermentation, allowing for greater control and typically producing sake with a lighter, more refined, and delicate flavor (e.g., Hiroshima, below 3°dH).[17]
• Mineral Impact: Higher levels of phosphorus and potassium boost enzyme activity. However, deleterious minerals such as iron and manganese can harm the sake by negatively affecting its aroma, flavor, and color, necessitating filtration.[17]

The geological characteristics of Japan—specifically, its naturally soft water, averaging 61 mg/L of bicarbonate [17]—dictated the technical evolution of sake brewing. Since soft water slows fermentation, Japanese brewers were compelled to develop highly precise, long-duration MPF systems and specialized yeast strains to ensure successful conversion.[17] This geographical constraint directly led to the refined, delicate flavor profile often associated with high-end Japanese alcohol, establishing water quality as the invisible force that fundamentally shaped the technical tradition.

6.2. Climate and Environment: Koji Growth and Modern Adaptation

The Koji mold requires specific temperatures and humidity levels to grow.[18] Climate change can affect these conditions, thereby altering the final flavor profile of the beverage.[18]

To mitigate these climatic effects, the northern island of Hokkaido, which had not historically been known for high-quality rice or sake, has become a new frontier for sake production. Hokkaido rice and sake have increasingly won awards and recognition across the globe, demonstrating the industry’s adaptation to changing environmental conditions.[18]

Chapter 7: Global Brand Comparison: Japan vs. The World’s Oldest Vintages

This chapter compares the longevity and structural differences between Japan’s oldest continuous brand and the world’s oldest established Western counterparts.

Table 7.1: Comparison of World’s Oldest Continuously Operating Beverage Brands

7.1. Temporal and Legal Contexts: Monastic/State Control vs. Family Lineage

The survival of Bayerische Staatsbrauerei Weihenstephan (1040 CE) is rooted in its origin as a Benedictine monastery brewery, later becoming a Bavarian State Brewery.[10] Its continuity is maintained through state/institutional backing and strict adherence to the Reinheitsgebot (German Beer Purity Law), emphasizing quality standardization.

In contrast, the survival of Sudo Honke (1141 CE) is defined by an unbroken, independent familial lineage (55 generations) [12] and a deep-seated commitment to localized environment and water protection.[12]

Western longevity, as seen in Weihenstephan, is often sustained through codified law or powerful institutional stability (Church/State). Japanese longevity, as exemplified by Sudo Honke, often relies on an intense, internalized, non-codified dignity toward the immediate, local environment (water, trees) passed down through generations.[12] The Japanese continuity is philosophical and ecological; the Western continuity is often legal and political.

Part IV: The Human Connection: Psychology, Physiology, and Spirit

Chapter 8: The Dual Nature of Connection: Psychological and Physiological Mechanisms

This chapter addresses the profound reasons why humans have such a deep connection with drinking alcohol, synthesizing neuroscience, genetics, and psychology.

8.1. Neurobiology of Reinforcement: Dopamine and the Hijacked Reward System

Addiction, including alcoholism, is deeply rooted in the brain’s reward system, influenced by possible genetic predispositions and a host of other factors.[19, 7] Alcohol artificially stimulates this system, triggering an excessive dopamine release during the binge/intoxication stage.[10] For many, drinking alcohol produces a joyful chemical response, compelling the brain to repeat the behavior.[7, 1]

However, repeated exposure leads to tolerance, forcing individuals to require higher doses to achieve the same effect.[8, 20] Over time, the brain adapts to this artificial stimulus by reducing its natural dopamine production and receptor sensitivity.[8, 20] This adaptation diminishes the ability to experience pleasure from natural rewards, reinforcing the reliance on alcohol to feel any sense of satisfaction or normalcy.[8, 20]

8.2. Genetic Predisposition: Heritability and Risk Factors

Genetic factors account for nearly half (49 percent) of the risk of alcoholism (heritability), with up to 51 different genes potentially involved.[7, 1] Family history of drinking also increases the risk of acquiring addictive behavior.[7, 1] The shared environment accounts for only 10 percent of the risk, suggesting that genetics is a more important risk factor than the environment.[1]

8.3. The East Asian Flush Phenomenon: Genetic Protection

Alcohol metabolism primarily involves two enzymes: Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) and Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH).[9] A variant of the ALDH gene that generates a nonfunctional enzyme is highly prevalent in East Asians but not in Caucasians and African-Americans.[9]

This defective gene variant causes the rapid accumulation of acetaldehyde (a toxic metabolite of alcohol), leading to intense flushing, nausea, and other unpleasant reactions.[9] Additionally, in around 80% of East Asians, the rapid accumulation of acetaldehyde is worsened by the ADH1B*2 allele, which converts ethanol to toxic acetaldehyde more quickly.[13]

Individuals with these defective genes consume significantly less alcohol and are at a much lower risk for alcoholism.[9] This physiological deterrent acts as a powerful, population-level genetic protective factor unique to East Asian populations, influencing cultural drinking patterns where the immediate physical feedback to consumption is highly negative.

Chapter 9: Spiritual and Ritual Use Across Civilizations

9.1. Global Intercultural Survey of Sacred Alcohol: Offerings, Rites, and Shamanism

Alcoholic drinks served essential social and religious roles in many ancient cultures.[5] Ancient Babylonians regularly used both beer and wine as offerings to their gods and worshiped wine deities.[5, 10] Some scholars interpret the abstract parts of Upper Paleolithic cave art as the work of shamans, religious specialists attempting to connect with natural forces and supernatural beings, potentially through the use of fermentation products to alter consciousness.[2]

9.2. Spiritual Functions in Japan: Sake in Shinto Rituals

Sake (o-miki) is a central element in Shinto practice. It symbolizes purity and is used in purification rites (harae). Sake mediates the relationship with the Kami (gods/spirits); drinking the offered sake signifies sharing communion with the deity.

9.3. Comparative Analysis: How Alcohol Mediates the Relationship between Man and the Divine

While many global cultures use alcohol primarily to induce ecstatic or trance states (shamanism, Dionysian rites) to communicate with the divine, Japanese spiritual use often emphasizes purity, communion, and formality (as seen in formal Norito prayers and standardized temple offerings). In Shinto, Sake’s function is closely tied to rice, a staple of life and purity, and the fermentation process is viewed as a transformation into a higher state—a gift from the Kami. The substance (sake) is a vehicle for ritual sharing with the divine, rather than solely a means of inducing altered consciousness. This reflects the spiritual framework of harmonious integration with the divine environment, contrasting with traditions that emphasize temporary transcendence.

Part V: Health, Longevity, and the Future of Brewing

Chapter 10: The Critical Lens: Re-evaluating Alcohol and Life Expectancy

This chapter critically addresses the complex relationship between alcohol consumption, health claims, and life expectancy.

10.1. Debunking the Health Halo: Analysis of the “Sick-Quitter Bias”

The long-standing claims that moderate drinking, particularly a glass of red wine, is beneficial for heart health have been shown to be based on flawed science. A significant flaw was the “sick-quitter bias”.

Many studies on alcohol and health compared light or moderate drinkers to people who abstain from alcohol, without adequately accounting for the fact that many people quit drinking because they have pre-existing health problems or previously drank heavily. This artificially made moderate drinkers appear healthier than the abstainer group. A comprehensive meta-analysis reviewing more than 100 previously published studies involving nearly 5 million participants concluded that alcohol consumption offers few health benefits and comes with serious risks. This analysis suggests that even moderate drinking reduces life expectancy.

10.2. The Life Expectancy Paradox: Critiquing Length of Life vs. Quality of Health

The argument that high average life expectancy (LE) in cultures with culturally high alcohol intake is often dependent on modern medical care (prescriptions and surgeries) suggests that LE itself is not a true reflection of innate, optimal health.

If a civilization achieves high average LE despite high cultural alcohol consumption, the data strongly suggests that external factors—such as excellent universal healthcare, advanced pharmaceuticals for chronic illness management, and timely surgical intervention—are successfully mitigating the known negative effects of chronic alcohol consumption. Medical technology has effectively decoupled the behavior (heavy drinking) from its biological consequence (premature death), creating the illusion of inherent biological resilience in that population. This supports the critique that LE, measured merely in years, is an insufficient metric for reflecting true biological health and well-being.

Chapter 11: State-of-the-Art Brewing and the Promise of Reduced Harm

This chapter explores advanced technologies aiming to engineer alcoholic beverages with reduced negative physiological impacts.

11.1. Precision Fermentation: Advanced Yeast Strains and Genetic Engineering in Brewing

The current state of the art involves utilizing genetic engineering tools, such as CRISPR, to modify yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). This allows brewers to engineer strains that produce desired flavor compounds more efficiently or, critically, to reduce the creation of unwanted byproducts (fusel alcohols, congeners) known to contribute to hangovers and neurotoxicity. The future goal is to develop yeast strains that either inherently limit alcohol content while maximizing flavor complexity or metabolize ethanol into less harmful intermediate compounds.

11.2. The Next Frontier: Theoretical Applications of Advanced Science in Molecular Restructuring

Quantum science and molecular restructuring represent a purely theoretical frontier focused on manipulating energy at the atomic and subatomic level.

• Theoretical Application 1: Chiral Manipulation of Ethanol: Ethanol exists in enantiomers (mirror images). Theoretically, quantum manipulation could influence the chirality or isotopic composition of the ethanol molecule or its metabolites, potentially slowing down toxic acetaldehyde binding to cellular components or facilitating safer detoxification pathways.
• Theoretical Application 2: Water Structure and Solvation: Given the critical role of water quality [17] in the brewing process, quantum chemistry could be applied to manipulate the structural characteristics of water clusters in the beverage. This influence could potentially affect flavor integration and how the alcohol is absorbed by human cells, theoretically smoothing the physiological impact.

Conclusion: Man’s Best Friend? A Synthesis of History and Hope

Alcohol is not inherently ‘man’s best friend,’ but rather an adaptive biochemical stimulus that became deeply integrated into human civilization due to its early role as a source of clean calories and its profound capacity to facilitate social cohesion and spiritual communion.[1, 5] The divergence in global brewing techniques (Koji vs. Malt) and consumption patterns is heavily influenced by geography, resource availability, and genetics (ALDH/ADH).[9, 13, 16, 17]

While modern science rigorously critiques the historical health claims of consumption , the resilience of ancient brands like Sudo Honke [12] demonstrates alcohol’s enduring cultural value as a symbol of continuity, nature, and history. Alcohol remains an irreplaceable artifact of human ingenuity, justifying its profound role in the historical narrative of civilization.

References

1. McGovern, Patrick E., et al. “A Mixed Fermented Beverage of Rice, Honey, and Hawthorn Fruit and/or Grape.” Penn Museum. https://www.penn.museum/research/project.php?pid=12.
2. Magazine, Smithsonian. “Traces of 13,000-Year-Old Beer Found in Israel.” https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/traces-13000-year-old-beer-found-israel-180970282/.
3. Perennial Recovery. “The Natural History of Alcoholism.” https://perennialrecovery.com/the-natural-history-of-alcoholism/.
4. MedicineNet. “Social and Psychological Causes of Alcoholism.” https://www.medicinenet.com/social_and_psychological_causes_of_alcoholism/article.htm.
5. Wikipedia. “History of alcoholic beverages.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_alcoholic_beverages.
6. ThoughtCo. “History of Alcohol: A Timeline.” https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-alcohol-a-timeline-170889.
7. Dietler, Michael. “Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228173428_Alcohol_AnthropologicalArchaeological_Perspectives.
8. Discover Magazine. “The Drunken Monkey Hypothesis: Was Booze an Advantage for Our Ancestors?” https://www.discovermagazine.com/drunken-monkey-hypothesis-was-booze-an-advantage-for-our-ancestors-40834.
9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6875758/.
10. Wikipedia. “Alcohol flush reaction.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction.
11. Penn LPS Online. “Neuroscience and Addiction: Unraveling the Brain’s Reward System.” https://lpsonline.sas.upenn.edu/features/neuroscience-and-addiction-unraveling-brains-reward-system.
12. Visit Okinawa Japan. “Awamori: Okinawa Spirit.” https://visitokinawajapan.com/discover/food-and-longevity/awamori-okinawa-spirit/.
13. Wikipedia. “Sudo Honke.”(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudo_Honke).
14. Weihenstephaner. https://www.weihenstephaner.de/en.
15. Craft Malting. “Koji Buzz: Unique Malt Research Underway at Montana State University.” https://craftmalting.com/koji-buzz-unique-malt-research-underway-at-montana-state-university/.
16. Japan Distilled. “Malt vs. Koji.” https://japandistilled.com/malt-vs-koji/.
17. Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/Homebrewing/comments/74pqfz/has_anyone_tried_koji_instead_of_malting_or_tried/.
18. The Sake Company. “How Water Affects Sake Flavor.” https://www.thesakecompany.com/blogs/sake-drops/how-water-affects-sake-flavor.
19. Tippsy Sake. “How Climate Change Affects Sake.” https://www.tippsysake.com/blogs/post/how-climate-change-affects-sake.
20. UChicago News. “Big Brains Podcast: What’s the truth about alcohol’s benefits and risks.” https://news.uchicago.edu/big-brains-podcast-whats-truth-about-alcohols-benefits-and-risks.
21. TIME. “Moderate Drinking Isn’t Likely to Extend Your Life, According to a New Meta-Analysis.” https://time.com/6267540/alcohol-premature-death-risks/.
22. Sudo Honke Company Website. http://www.sudohonke.co.jp/en/.